The Left Digit Effect in Pricing Strategy Essay Example for Free

The Left Digit Effect in Pricing Strategy Essay Have you at any point gone over sticker prices that have 9 endings? Have you at any point purchased those product with 9 endings feeling that was the best arrangement and wound up with a gigantic bill? Do you notice that the 9 endings are generally imprinted in an a lot littler size than the digits on the left? This is a consequence of a mental idea called â€Å"The Left Digit Effect† in which individuals will in general give more consideration to the furthest left digits than the ones on the right. The thought has been broadly utilized for a considerable length of time for its incredible effect on consumers’ shopping conduct. Nine endings can undoubtedly be seen all over: writing supplies of $1. 99, $4. 99 in book shops, vehicles of $2,999, $5,999 in a vendor, genuine domains of $199,999, $299,999 available. It is intriguing how such a little change can make a sticker price appear to be altogether lower than another of only one penny or one dollar higher, just as incredibly influence consumers’ choice. Indeed, even the most intelligent customers can succumb to this little deceive. For a ton of times I ended up asking why I purchased merchandise of the best costs however wound up with an enormous bill. Later I understood that I had fallen casualty of the utilization of the left digit impact in evaluating system. Be that as it may, it is intriguing to find out about how the utilization of such a basic impact ends up having an extraordinary effect on people’s mind without their in any event, monitoring it. The left digit impact can be just characterized as people’s giving lopsided consideration to the digits on the left contrast with the ones on the right. This outcomes from human’s nature of perusing from left to right. Another conceivable explanation is that the encoding forms in human’s mind start before individuals even wrap up the entirety of the digits. They will in general think quick so as to proceed onward with different things, so they disparage the significance of the correct digits and make the digits on the left the extent. Exploiting that, organizations and makers apply the impact in estimating technique. That was the moment that 9 endings were brought into the market. One motivation to represent such a marvel, that the 9 endings are doing to organizations is the trouble of including odd numbers. Individuals are increasingly acquainted with the decimal number framework which comprises of 10 numbers. As a result, the presence of 9 endings in costs is an incredible change in people’s capacity to figure it out. They make it a lot harder to control the all out spending as individuals are accustomed to managing round numbers. For instance, it is clearly simpler to include 300 and 200 than 299 and 199, as the first is 500 and the subsequent one is 498. When not having the option to include the costs, individuals are unconscious of their all out spending. The majority of the occasions, purchasers simply disregard the 9 endings as opposed to do the best possible adjusting. Despite the fact that the pennies are seen however they are somewhat overlooked in light of the fact that the cerebrum begins encoding data following the furthest left digits are perused. A hypothesis proposed by Keith Coulter †Associate Professor of Marketing at Graduate School of Management, Clark University †said that the impact can be improved given the pennies are imprinted in a littler size than the dollar part, so the pennies are bound to be overlooked or mostly disregarded by quick reasoning clients. A typical perspective of the effect’s mental effect is that the 9 endings persuade that products are set apart at the most reduced value conceivable and that it is the best arrangement out there. At the point when they look at, that is the point at which an idea called psychological cacophony produces results. As it were, when settling on two clashing results, individuals tend to pick the one that settles on them feel more joyful about their decision. Winding up with a gigantic bill, they regularly protect themselves that it’s worth the cash and what they purchased was a decent deal. Additionally, 9 endings assume a significant job with regards to value groups. One penny or one dollar drop can cause the cost to show up in the lower value groups and hence be seen by increasingly possible clients. For example, an old vehicle of $1,999 will even now be put in $1,000-$2,000 value band however it’s only a dollar to the following value band. Therefore, it tends to be seen by clients who need vehicles in the $1,000-$2,000 territory, other than the ones who need vehicles above $2,000. Notwithstanding, the left digit impact has been demonstrated to possibly work if the furthest left digit changes. As such, purchasers become progressively delicate to value changes when the one penny drop results the left digit of the costs to change. To explain the thought, in a little review which I completed in Southeast grounds of Houston Community College with 21 understudies, when being solicited to pick between two pens from $3 and $3. 99, the members indicated no unmistakable inclination over which one they like better. Be that as it may, when the costs were changed to $4 and $3. 99, 17 out of 21 members detailed that they would pick the second pen in light of the fact that â€Å"it was cheaper†. Despite the fact that there was an entire dollar contrast with only one penny after the adjustment in costs, the members become increasingly touchy about how much cash they spend when the furthest left digit changes. At the point when the mind rapidly examines the costs, a similar left digits will make one believe that there is no huge contrast between them despite the fact that it was the correct digits that decide the distinction. Be that as it may, if the left digits change, despite the fact that the correct digits make them only one penny unique, the mind naturally characterizes a major hole between the two costs and in this way lead individuals to pick the one whose left digit is lower. The exploration has given me a top to bottom perspective on the mental effect of the left digit impact in valuing methodology. Prior to leading the venture, all I thought of the 9 endings was that they would cause costs to appear lower and along these lines all the more speaking to likely clients. Be that as it may, subsequent to doing a profound examination on the theme, I’ve took in much more than I suspected I would. I’ve discovered that the impact begins from human’s manners of thinking itself: the mind begins encoding the data preceding we even wrap up the entirety of the digits, and that the 9 endings don’t consistently work yet need a significant condition for them to produce results: the left digit changes because of the one penny or one dollar drop . It additionally astonished me how people’s choice and shopping conduct are impacted and dictated by such a little impact without their monitoring it, and how the utilization of such a seemingly insignificant detail can do ponder to organizations. The left digit impact itself is connected with other intriguing mental impacts that trigger me to look for more information. Instead of only a surface learning, I had the option to dive deep into the base of the issue and find out about its actual nature. In any case, I think the most significant thing that I had the option to gain from doing this exploration is what to look like at natural things in a day by day schedule from a mental perspective and break down them through that perspective.

Hospitality Trump International Waikiki Hotel

Question: Talk about thrHospitalityfor Trump International Waikiki Hotel. Answer: Presentation: Trump universal Waikiki inn is probably the best lodging in Waikiki and is the main five star evaluated inns in the Island of Oahu. The inn is arranged in Hawaii and is viewed as the chief lavish inn. It has apartment suite lodgings which are 460 in numbers and the inns unit ranges from 562 square feet to 2110 square feet and the scope of cost is between $ 500000 to $ 3 million. The area of the lodging is 223 Saratoga streets, Honolulu, HI in United States. The inn offers 462 guestrooms in the 38-story property. There are two eateries highlighted in the inn that is 24-hour room administration and an entryway relax. The market size of Trump worldwide Waikiki lodging is 4260 million. The lodging has the 562 units (WaikikiTM, 2016). The structures of the inn incorporates the eating space, spa, caf, anteroom, vehicle leaving and gives the perspective on sea from the suites in 6th floor. The spa at the lodging accompanies the extraordinary treatment utilizing the strategies and the plants of Hawaiian. The parlor of the lodging offers extraordinary scopes of beverages alongside the fluid breakfast. The property is evaluated best in Honolulu. The rooms of the lodgings come furnished with the offices of best perspective on seas and sea shore arranged around there. The sea shore milestones are the strolling good ways from the lodgings. The inn is the condominium lodging and includes the Tower trump worldwide inn and trump global inn. Waikiki Parc lodging is the boutique which is situated in Honolulu arranged in Hawaii and it is the extravagance sister property of Halekulani and is found right over the road on sea shore of Waikiki. The inn includes the wellness room and has a housetop warmed pool. The Waikiki Parc inn is arranged in the Helomua Road, Honolulu in Hawaii. The guestrooms of the inn are mixed with the cutting edge plans. Furthermore, the space of room is in excess of 325 square feet. The lodging offers the comforts that are uncommon and in amazing area. It is one of the most looked for after inn in Hawaii and has the extraordinary area. The inn gives the visitors the wide scope of exercises from surfing, climbing, shopping to investigating Waikiki nightlife. The market size of Waikiki Parc inn is 3000 million (Waikiki Parc, 2016). The lodging offers the advancement technique that is truly outstanding in the inn business of inns. The clients would get the best reserving rate in the event that it is done by means of the advancement and the lodging doesn't charge any retreat expenses. The lodging has the sound money related standing and it has improved group of cordiality the executives having encountered and prepared bore. It has noteworthy worldwide scales and has open and advertising relations. It has showcase unions and advertising. It has high worth experience of visitor, which is conveyed by the brand Halekulani. The administration and result of the lodging has the item that is unmatched and is set in the worldwide market. Conversation: The booking of the inns are finished utilizing the online lodging booking destinations and the rates for which shift with the on appearance appointments. The reservation done utilizing the sites, for example, Agoda and Wotif would include distinctive expense and this cost varies from on appearance booking. The sites furnish the clients with various preferences. Occasion that was occurring in the market at the given time of examination: The market of Hawaii was commanded by the games that happened in the Hawaii Island, Oahu, and Maui. The games that happened are the Iron man big showdown, Xterra big showdown and Hawaiian Airlines Rugby title. The Hawaii the travel industry authority bolsters all the games. The promoting program concerning the games is to bring the games of Hawaii at the worldwide level. There are additionally numerous celebrations that are seen during the given month of visit. The different celebrations are Honolulu pride celebrations, Talk story celebration, and Hawaiian leeway key guitar celebration, Okinawan, Hawaii Burlesque celebration and celebration moves of adoration celebration, Hispanic legacy celebration, food and wine celebration. There is additionally forthcoming Hawaii global film celebration. Looking into the Price Movements of the Rates of Both the Hotels Against one another and Against the Website. Examination of Trump global Waikiki Hotel with Waikiki Parc Hotel: Source: (made by creator) The diagram delineates the booking pace of the two lodgings chose for correlation. The booking pace of Trump International Waikiki lodging for the long stretch of September is $ 438 and the booking rate for the inn Waikiki Parc is $ 479. At the point when the booking rate for some other time that is seven days after the booking rate on mid of September is thought of, it tends to be seen from the charts that the rate has stay unaltered. The booking rate for both the lodgings are not changing during the time of investigation is that there were numerous progressing celebrations and games in Hawaii. The lodgings experience top interest during this specific time and along these lines the administrations of the inns doesn't change the cost of booking. The cost of both the lodgings for the given time of examination stays unaltered (Sisson Adams, 2013). Correlation of Trump International Waikiki Hotels with the Websites: Source: (made by creator) The chart shows the correlation of Trump worldwide Waikiki lodging with the two sites that is Wotif and Agoda. It very well may be seen that the booking cost of lodging is not exactly the sites. The booking pace of Trump global Waikiki lodging is $ 479 when contrasted with the Wotif for which the booking rate is $ 525. The cost of Agoda remains at $ 515 against the booking pace of the lodging. The pace of sites for booking the inn is more than the pace of the inn on the grounds that the appointments are done in cutting edge and this furnishes with the office to keep away from the booking in hustle. In any case, the booking pace of Agoda is lower than the Wotif. The booking rate for all the sites and the inn isn't fluctuating during the given time of examination (Wood, 2013). Correlation of Waikiki Parc Hotel With the Websites: Source: (made by creator) The above chart delineates the correlation of the booking paces of Waikiki lodging with the inn booking, for example, sites Anoda and Wotif. The booking pace of lodging Waikiki Parc remains at $ 495 during the mid September. The booking pace of inn by means of the site Wotif is $ 535 and the booking rate for the site Anoda is $ 525. It very well may be seen that the booking pace of lodging is lower than those booked utilizing the sites. Be that as it may, the pace of booking intensive site Wotif is higher than the rate from the inn booking site Agoda. The booking pace of Waikiki inn is lower than both the sites gave here. In this way, it very well may be presumed that the on appearance pace of inns are less that the booking done by means of the sites. Be that as it may, it doesn't give the affirmation of the accessibility of the rooms on the appearance date. There is no assurance that the solicitation would be conceded (Weber Dennison, 2014). The cost of booking rate inns utilizing the sites and on appearance during the time of investigation is staying same. The explanation that there is no vacillation in the booking pace of lodgings is that September is the time of celebration and occurring of the games in Hawaii and during this time, the inn encounters immense requests and it is inferable from the way that the rate stays unaltered. The interest of the rooms of the inns rises and the cost doesn't change encountering the immense and stable interest (Buhalis Crotts, 2013). The reservation of the inn before the appearance is finished utilizing the internet booking locales, for example, Aroda and Wotif may prompts increment in the expense. The booking through sites would ensure the best cost to the clients. Booking the lodgings room utilizing the sites of Agoda accompanies the upside of booking that the clients can book a similar room at the lower cost for similar dates that is bookable on different sites. The booking done before the appearance accompanies numerous focal points (Samidjen et al., 2013). Proposal and Conclusion: For inn Trump International Waikiki inn, the booking that is done preceding appearance utilizing the web based booking sites Aroda would be progressively valuable to the clients. This is so on the grounds that the pace of booking the lodgings is more affordable than the booking done by means of Wotif. For the booking of lodging Waikiki Parc inn, the booking done through the site Anoda is suggested as the booking pace of the inn utilizing this site is lower than the Website of Wotif. At the point when the two inn booking sites are thought of, at that point the pace of booking done through the Anoda is lower than the booking done through Wotif. Based on finding and examination, it is prescribed to make the booking of the lodgings ought to be done through the inn booking site of Anoda. The purpose for this is the booking pace of Anoda is lower than the booking done through Wotif. The prescribed inn to the clients would be Trump global Waikiki inn and the purpose behind choice would be the booking rate. The booking pace of Trump International Waikiki inn is lower than the Waikiki Parc inn. Along these lines, the booking of the lodging Trump universal Waikiki would be done through the site Agoda. Reference: Brotherton, B. (2013). Neighborliness and hospitality.In Search of Hospitality. Buhalis, D., Crotts, J. (2013).Global unions in the travel industry and friendliness the executives. Routledge. Kozak, M., Kozak, N. (Eds.). (2016).Tourism and Hospitality Management. Emerald Group Publishing. Line, N. D., Runyan, R. C. (2012). Friendliness showcasing research: Recent patterns and future directions.International Journal of Hospitality Management,31(2), 477-488. O'Halloran, R. M. (2014). Key Concepts in Hospitality Management.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality

Empirical Paper Assignment Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Experimental Assignment - Research Paper Example The rate anyway expanded in five states and stayed steady in 11 different states. Kentucky recorded the most critical rate decrement, however the state’s joblessness rate stayed over the nation’s normal worth. There were extra openings for work in the state in October yet a few people additionally found employment elsewhere, with retirees as instances of the individuals who found employment elsewhere. The lost positions in Kentucky were anyway loaded up with new representatives and not so much lost from the economy. Kentucky recorded the best fall in joblessness rate with a deviation of 0.5 percent while four different states understood an abatement of 0.4 percent in their joblessness rates. Joblessness rates per state remained bring down that national measurements in Rocky Mountain States. On the national level, joblessness rate decreased by 0.1 percent, from 5.9 percent in September and this came about because of production of 214000 new openings. The report incorpora tes states’ joblessness rates for September and October of the year 2014 and for the long stretch of October 2013 (Sparshott 1). The author’s measurements are solid since information and produced diagrams from FRED bolster them. The following are diagrams of two pointers of business rates, as recovered from FRED databases that help the author’s report. The diagrams, inteprated together, offers data that is predictable with Sspartshott’s report and therefofe support the author’s perspective. From chart 1, it is clear that business rates have been expanding, consistently, in the course of the last one year. Consistency in the increament can be utilized to gauge further increament to october and the remainder of the months in the year 2014. Subsequently, it tends to be reasoned that the quantity of livelihoods in the private segment improved from its incentive in September 2014 into October 2014. The chart of number of work in the open segment is anyway temperamental and proposes a diminishing in business rate from September 2014 to October 2014. Pace of

Psychological accounts of chronic pain

The operant approach to chronic pain was intended to concentrate upon external pain-induced responses and the social implications of the nature of feedback. The operant model has been particularly described by Fordyce et al (1968, 1976) based upon the work of other individuals in the behavioural field, for example Skinner. The operant theory implies that the genesis of the pain should be distinguished from pain behaviours and the articulation of pain.External displays of pain such as wincing may be conditioned just asany other type of behaviour. If the patient receives positive feedbackin response to pain behaviours, they may remain after the usual time of healing for that ailment. There is a respectable body of evidence to justify the use of the operant model in response to chronic pain,yet there is a relatively miniscule level of consensus about why theywork and the validity of their theoretical foundations. The operanttheory is supported by research projects that intimate the success ofbehavioural treatments, but there are several problematic elements inthese studies which have been recently addressed. The troubling issuesinclude the antecedent belief that all pain behaviours aredysfunctional, the obstacles to continuing the learned behaviourssubsequent to treatment and the reluctance of some chronic painpatients to embrace operant modes of treatment. Essentially, the natureof the sum of the problems is dualistic, and can either be addressed ascomplications with interpreting pain behaviours or the inevitable failure rate that all treatments face. These issues, salient though they are, are not exhaustive. The operantmodel fails to recognise the fact that the patients personalinterpretation of their pain and the changes they are experiencing maybe important. Acknowledging this can clear the way for cognitivetheories to add something to operant methods of treatment. Indeed,elements that influence behaviour in general and pain behaviour inparticular are complex and multi-faceted. It is seldom evident that asingle cause has led to a single effect. Although it is true thatpain-related behaviours are often modified during the course of atreatment programme, it is not necessarily true that it is for thereasons uppermost in the minds of the experts monitoring them. Inbrief, rational thought cannot condone the notion that the operantmodel of chronic pain is true because treatment programmes utilisingbehavioural methods have been shown to alter the behaviour of patients suffering from chronic pain. A particular assertion that has come under scrutiny is the idea thatpatients modify their verbal expressions of pain in response toreactions from spouses. The methods and logic that lead to thisconclusion are questionable and so must be their perceived contributionto the validity of the operant model. Further, some studies claiming toprovide empirical support for the operant model only partially adhereto its theoretical roots. Other studies which are more methodologicallysound have suspect sample gathering procedures. The findings of thesestudies still hold merit for the cognitive model of chronic pain,though ardent followers of the operant model will inevitably bedisappointed. The fact is that the operant model of chronic pain doesnot have as strong a body of empirical evidence to back it up as itspatrons would like. As a result of the questionable reliability of theoperant theory, many researchers have begun to actively espouse thecognitive-behavioural theories of chronic pain. Cognitive Behavioural Account of Chronic Pains The cognitive-behavioural approach to chronic pain purported to contain the essentials of the operant account of chronic pain,but added space for human emotions, cognitions and mental copingmechanisms. This approach, like surgical and pharmacologicalinterventions, attempt to eliminate or reduce it. Rates of failure inachieving this have led researchers to turn from attempted painreduction to other objectives like active rehabilitation. One studycompared and contrasted two behavioural treatments for ongoing pain.The first treatment focused on abandoning strivings to overcome painand invest more energy in achieving other aims in life. The secondtreatment was a traditional cognitive behavioural treatment stressingthe development of pain-reducing mechanisms. The treatmentincorporating acceptance and re-focussing proved more successful thanattempts to master the pain in patients suffering from chronic pain. Initial formulations of a cognitive behavioural approach to chronicpain were predicated upon the realisation that programmes with thebehavioural label did not contain only behavioural content. Behaviouralexperts acknowledged the necessity of addressing the cognitivefunctioning of a patient as well as his or her behavioural patterns. Atpresent, the role of cognition in reporting extremity of pain,endeavours to successfully deal with pain, emotions and level ofpain-related incapacity is solidly documented. The relationship betweencognitive functioning and pain has revealed a number of importantthemes. The way in which patients mentally interpret their pain ispredictive of their response and their level of functioning. Forexample, patients to perceive their pain as an indication of moredamage often spend more energy attempting to avoid their pain andbecome less able to function naturally as a result. Patients whocatastrophise their pain may experience augmented levels of depressioncompa red with those who do not. Depression has also been linked tobehavioural functioning and both of these may be affected by thepatients attempts to predict or control his pain. The sum of the implications of these findings points to the nearcertainty that cognitive functioning must be considered when attemptingto construct any comprehensive and effective model of chronic pain. Thecognitive behavioural theory does not go as far as to suggest thatcertain cognitions lead to pain; the relationship is not as simplisticas that. There is substantial evidence to suggest that cognitiveactivity related to pain can help to create coping mechanisms that areeither helpful or dysfunctional. The nature of the coping mechanismscan directly affect the degree to which chronic pain infringes oncontinued functioning. Some behaviourists allude to the role of cognitions in their researchby referring to external or environmental factors. Strict behaviourismcontinues to be the preferred method of treatment and as such, willcontinue to concentrate on the transformation of overt behaviours.Evidence for the need to include cognitive and other factors in dealingwith chronic pain is becoming increasingly pressing, and it must beacknowledged that including one treatment session on cognitive theoryand praxis does not magically transform a behavioural programme into acognitive behavioural programme. Even the cognitive behavioural theoryitself is in need of more complete incorporation of cognitive methods.There are simple questions that can be raised in the minds of chronicpain patients that may transform the way that they think about andrespond to their pain. The claims of balanced research pale incomparison to the pressing needs of patients suffering daily who couldbenefit from cognitive interventions. Trea tment for chronic pain mustbe addressed in terms of cognition and behaviour; even if behaviour isthe founding principle upon which a treatment is based, it must berecognised that behaviour acquires meaning in a cognitive sphere. There have been propositions to reformulate the theoreticalconstruction of the cognitive behavioural approach. Modifications ofthe approach start with the conception that the issues arising from thepresence of chronic pain stem from patient reactions to their pain.Reactions are conceptualised as covering the sum of cognitive processesand not merely external actions. Dividing characteristics betweenpatients who are anxious and suffering a notable level ofincapacitation and those who are able to maintain a level offunctioning despite their pain are not found in the sensations of painexperienced by the patient but in the content of the internal cognitiveassessment the patient carries out about their own pain. Some cognitivebehavioural appraisals of pain are primarily concerned with the meaningthat the individual patient attributes to his or her pain. The reformulated cognitive behavioural model of chronic pain proposesthat the interaction of various phenomenon such as internal appraisalsof pain, learning history, mood, avoidance behaviours and environmentalinfluences can become habitual to an extent that negative consequencesof the pain, such as level of disability, may persist despite theremoval of the sensory aspect of the pain. Motor behaviours thatattempt to evade the pain in some way may continue after the pain hassubsided or lessened and therefore the cognitions that prompted thosebeliefs continue. An acute sense of worry or anxiety may heightensafety or defence mechanisms perpetuate an autonomic arousal thatmaintains positive feedback for the notion that there is somethingwrong with the patient. Additionally, psychological dysfunction such asdepression or mild panic can augment the chances of patients makingcalculative mistakes regarding their pain including assessing the painas being worse than it actually is. This will r einforce the cycles ofavoidance that the patient has previously used. This particular reconfiguration of the cognitive behavioural modelfurther accepts that anxiety and other maladaptive behaviours such asmisusing medication can easily invoke arousal encourage the continuanceof maladaptive behaviours. The model also takes into account the drivefor the patient to seek reassurance about their pain and they ways thatthey deal with it. They attempt to reconcile any feedback received withtheir own beliefs about their pain and its related effects. Manychronic pain patients live with the trepidation that the continuedexistence of chronic pain indicates that further damage is being doneto their bodies, which will in turn exacerbate the pain theyexperience. This may raise their levels of anxiety, which affects theirability to think rationally and calmly about their pain. They mayrequest more medical procedurestests or treatmentsto provideempirical evidence to themselves about the state of their bodies. Thereconceptualised model indicates that the response of me dicalprofessionals in these situations may unknowingly encourage this kindof cognitive presumption and therefore positively reinforce incapacityor a passive response to chronic pain. The model articulated above is extensively based upon other cognitivebehavioural models of chronic pain and can even take into accounttheories about the nature of the meta-cognitions of the patient. If,for example, the patient cognitively interprets the pain or cognitionsrelated to the pain indicate something negative about them as a person,then they may make efforts to overcome or control such thoughts inattempts to protect themselves from further negative consequences. Forexample, if the patient fears that thinking about his or her pain isgoing to make them crazy then they may make strong efforts to altertheir thoughts about the pain in order to stop themselves fromdescending into mental illness. This may stem from a fear that sincetheir physical health has deteriorated, their mental health is underthreat as well. In addition, some patients may think that the more timethey spend thinking about their pain, the more serious and damaging itwill be. The model asserts that the more cogn itive energy is spenttrying not to have pain-related thoughts, the more frequent they maybecome and the anxiety levels of the patient may continue to rise,prompting more and more pain-related cognitions. These thoughts mayincrease and the patient may feel that the more they have thesethoughts, the more damage they are doing to themselves. Patients canend up caught in a web of cognitive gymnastics about their chronicpain, which diverts energy from dealing with the pain in constructiveways and maintaining a satisfactory level of functioning. The cognitions that a patient may develop concerning their chronic painare the product of complex and intricate synthesis of experiences,cultural forces and even childhood learning. Patients do not interprettheir pain only in terms of their immediate situation, but bring avariety of other elements to bear upon the way that they translatetheir ideas about pain and what it means into their responses to theirown pain. If they have had pain in the past, or have had closerelationships with individuals who have suffered pain, the express andnull curriculum of their experiences will provide them with a set ofbeliefs about pain, what it means and what can be done about it.Cultural ideas about how to respond to pain will also affect theirevaluations about the role of pain in the life of an individual. Spouseresponses can also be important factors in interpreting chronic pain.It can also be said that behaviour that demonstrates acceptance ofchronic pain stems from the collaboration of past and presentcircumstances, as well as the emotive and interpersonal influences ofthe present. The way that the spouse expresses his or her beliefsabout pain can either reinforce or contradict the beliefs of thepatient. If the patient believes that his condition or experience ofchronic pain has made him incapacitated and the spouse behavessolicitously, the patients beliefs about his incapacitation can beconfirmed and may override any other input about the patients abilityto function normally. The cognitive behavioural approach has built into its tenets thecapacity for the patient to learn new coping strategies and introducenew cognitions without an awareness of the reality of his or hersituation. This may be particularly pertinent in the area ofmedication, where any form of relief from pain, whether it is actual ofperceived, may be a response to thoughts that the pain is out ofcontrol and the patient is unable to carry on without the presence ofmedication. The cognitive behavioural approach also asserts that thesetypes of cognitions and resulting actions are cemented together andwork in partnership to perpetuate one another. If a patient thinks thatperforming a particular action will lead to further damage and pain, hewill avoid that action. Thus, he will not discover any information tothe contrary and will continue to believe that the presence of painmeans that he should not engage in such an activity. Even when patientsdo try to accomplish certain activities, if they do so utilisingprotective methods, they may only confirm the danger of the activity intheir minds and become dependent upon the protective measure instead ofachieving their full potential in functioning. It is becoming more and more accepted that it is prudent to explorechronic pain from a cognitive behavioural approach. There are a numberof reasons for this growing confidence. First, it has been assertedthat the reformulated cognitive model explains the breadth of evidencemore extensively than other models. Second, the hypotheses that are putforth by the model may easily be empirically tested in order todetermine whether they are statistically supported and theoreticallysound. This makes them infinitely more useful for the practical work oftreatment, as they can offer statistically supported predictions forthe type of treatment that will be most useful in various situations.Obtaining the ability to pinpoint pivotal cognitive functions shouldlead to accurate treatments in place of the relatively arbitraryapproach sometimes implemented by professionals. For several years, the research and treatment of chronic painconcentrated on coping mechanisms as the pre-eminent behavioural factorin adjustment. Yet when coping approaches began to be compared withother types of behavioural approaches such as acceptance of chronicpain, significant conclusions were reached regarding the potential ofthe respective approaches to predict disability and distress. It hasbeen asserted that there are fundamental problems with coping as acomprehensive adjustment mechanism. The issues with coping areconceptual and empirical in nature and stem from its reliance uponcognitive responses. An empirical study demonstrated that acceptanceof chronic pain led to decreased intensity of symptoms and a betterquality of life. Acceptance of pain was conclusively shown to besuperior to attempting to cope with pain. It is possible that acceptance of pain may be accomplished through avariety of methods. Some of the treatments currently in use, such asthose involving cognitive-behavioural methods can help to make painmore acceptable. This is true even for those cognitive-behaviouralmethods that focus on mastering pain. For example, it could be thatdiminished avoidance and augmented experience of pain as a result ofmore control that help patients to accept the pain in their lives. Ifpatients are exposed to more pain they may develop diminished emotionalreactions and begin to understand that pain intensity is different invarious situations. This understanding can teach them that the painthey suffer is not as intense as they first thought. In addition,teaching methods of behavioural control can result in alternations tothe patients internalised definition of a painful event, making iteasier to endure. The role of values in a contextual cognitive-behavioural approach hasbeen assessed in terms of the relationships between the values ofchronic pain patients and the success of following their dailyroutines. It is often easy for chronic pain patients to expend greatamounts of effort struggling with pain rather than focusing theirenergies on living according to their values. Living according tovalues was defined in this particular study as acting according to whatthey care most about and what they want their life to stand for. Ifpain is not then reduced, the patient may feel that not only have theirlimited amounts of energy been wasted, but they have also neglectedtheir core purposes in life, which may result in further angst andanxiety. In a study examining the process of living according to personal valueswhile suffering from chronic pain, 140 pain patients completed aninventory of values including categories such as family, friends,health, work and growth. The patients were also asked to recordinformation regarding their pain, anxiety and depression. The resultsshowed that the highest values for the patients were family and health,and the values of least importance overall were friends, growth andlearning. The patients generally did not feel satisfied that they wereliving life according to their values, and this could be because oftheir level of physical and emotive functioning. The results of thestudy further demonstrated that those who achieved more success atliving according to their values reported higher levels of acceptance,although acceptance could not reliably account for the sum of thesuccess. Although patients felt that overall they were not living according totheir values, there was a significantly higher rate of success atliving according to family values than maintaining health. In practicalterms, this means that out of the areas that patients value most, theywere able to achieve much more success in one area, family than theother, health. Approaches to chronic pain that are contextually based deal withcognitive issues in a different manner than normalcognitive-behavioural approaches. Approaches that are contextuallybased seek to change the operation of negative thoughts and the way inwhich they are experienced, which affects other behaviours. A largequantity of the work devoted to these types of approaches involvesreleasing maladaptive cognitive forces on behaviour and intensifyingbehavioural elasticity through cognitive de-fusion. Approaches that arefounded upon values add an aspect to this type of treatment.Articulating values during treatment for chronic pain is equivalent toadding cognitive influences to behaviour sequences. On a practical level, the conceptualisations of the cognitivebehavioural model of chronic pain can help to explain how patients dealwith their pain, particularly the cognitive and meta-cognitiveinteractions they have with their symptoms and other factors thatinfluence their quality of life and their approach to their pain. If,for example, the patient is in the situation where the pain persistsand further tests and treatments prove unsuccessful, it may be easy forthe cognitive components of the mind of the patient to feel defeatedand to acquire a learned helplessness. The patient may subconsciouslyor even consciously feel that all of their cognitive efforts to thispoint have proved futile and therefore they may be paralysed by thenotion that whatever cognitive energy they put into dealing with theirpain will be to no avail. They may even come to believe that anyfurther medical intervention will be of no use to them. These types ofthoughts can affect the effort that patients put into t heir treatment.They may be less participatory and become increasingly passive even inthe face of extensive medical procedures. They may cease to beemotionally and mentally invested in working with the medicalprofessionals to achieve the best outcome possible for their situation.If patients feel that treatment will be useless and they make lesseffort, their treatment may not be as effective as it could have been.A treatment outcome that is less than optimal will only reinforce thepatients sense of helplessness and they may even be dismissed asunhelpful or disengaged by medical staff. If these patients are viewedfrom the perspective of the cognitive behavioural model of chronicpain, however, they will be perceived not as unmotivated but asindividuals with maladaptive cognitions. This understanding of theirbehaviour would make them prime candidates for cognitive interventions,where their chances of improvement would be quite high. There is much empirical support for the cognitive behavioural model,and it has been found consistent with a wide scope of researchoutcomes. There is particularly strong support for the idea that whenpatients worry about their pain, they are more likely to scrutinisetheir pain, which removes effort and thought from other activities andmay make the pain worse than it is. These findings offer support forthe cognitive theory that hypervigilance and anxiety are closelyrelated. In other studies, anxiety and stress have been found topredict ambiguous ailments in patients suffering from chronic pain,which supports the theory that hypervigilance may create or exacerbatethe ill health of the patient or at least the patients perception ofthe state of their health. In addition, pain-related trepidation was discovered to predict evadingstrategies more accurately than the intensity of the pain or thephysical ailment. Here, the researchers concluded that their findingswere not as supportive of the operant model of chronic pain as thecognitive behavioural model. Further, evidence exists that supports thenotion that striving to avert pain-related cognitions may actuallyintensify pain sensations. Though it is advisable to treat thisparticular study with some caution, there is more substantial researchto support the related notion that trying to block pain-relatedthoughts is counterproductive and will worsen anxiety. Related to thisare the theories surrounding autonomic arousal, which have alsoreceived empirical backing. It has been asserted that patientssuffering from chronic pain do not respond to pain in the same ways aspatients whose pain is not chronic. This is true despite the fact thatthey do not demonstrate significant differences from non-chr onic painpatients in other areas. When the responses of chronic pain patientsare measured with regard to distressing activities, the pain levelsmeasured increased dramatically. This was not true for normalactivities. Therefore, it seems safe to adhere to a model of chronicpain in which the state of arousal prompted by particular activitiesdirectly affects the pain experienced by the patient. Other elements in the cognitive behavioural model have also receivedsupport. In particular the role of medication and the appropriatenessof use can affect patients complaints regarding symptoms and level ofincapacity. One study examined the contrasting characteristics ofchronic pain for patients whose pain could be justified by medicalexplanations and those whose pain could not be explained in medicalterminology. The authors found remarkable variations in a number ofvariables, such as excessive prescribing and internal processing in thegroup of patients whose pain could not be medically explained. Theywent on to assert that when medical professionals in this type ofsituation intimate that it could be psychosomatic, they reinforce thepatients self-concept of an ill person, if not physically, thenmentally. Reacting in this fashion often fails to convince the patientthat there is nothing wrong and instead, motivates their search for aplausible explanation for their pain. They may demand more tests andinterventions in search of legitimising their pain. The important pointhere is that the responses of medical professionals to patientexpressions of pain can have a significant impact on pain-relatedcognitions and thus on their responses to treatment. The sum of this evidence provides legitimisation for approachingchronic pain in a way that is much like the way that anxiety andobsessions are approached. This suggests that if obsessions can betreated, then so can maladaptive pain-related cognitions andbehaviours. While the need for further research remains in certainareas, such as the clarification of the significance of safetybehaviours and the effectiveness of specific cognitive behaviouralintervention programmes, there is strong evidence that cognitivebehavioural treatments will overtake operant treatments as thepreferred method for addressing chronic pain. Sharp (2001) concludeshis discussion of psychological theories of chronic pain by arriving atthe destination of cognitive behavioural models akin to those used totreat anxiety. He regards the operant model as having too manyproblematic issues to be considered a reliable source of chronic paintreatment. He goes even further, to suggest that many of the cognitivebehavioural mod es currently in use are hampered by the fact that theycontinue to espouse behavioural principles that have outlived theirusefulness. According to Sharp, reformulated cognitive theories areneeded in order to satisfactorily assess patient cognitions regardingtheir pain. While behavioural factors should not be completely ignored,they should nonetheless always be considered within a cognitiveframework. The concept of reformulating cognitive models is supportedby the evidence and appears to be more helpful in finding realscientific meaning therein. Treatments involving cognitive behaviour therapy and behaviour therapyfor chronic pain in adults have been the subject of meta-analysis. Theresearchers recognised that there is persuasive data for theeffectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) in augmenting thefunctioning ability of patients suffering from chronic pain. There isalso conclusive evidence that CBT can enhance emotional states, reducediscomfort and minimise behaviour that stems from a sense of beingincapacitated. However, it has been noted that in a clinical treatmentcontext, CBT is not often presented as an option for individualssuffering from chronic pain. Physical, pharmacological and medicaltreatments are provided as options even though there is often lessempirical evidence for their success. This study sought to do asystematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials in this area.The researchers indentified 25 trials that were appropriate candidatesfor meta-analysis and compared the efficacy of CBT wit h various othertreatments. In this study, the experts were concerned primarily with two issues.The first was whether or not CBT is an effective treatment for chronicpain in the sense that it is better to undergo CBT than to have notreatment at all. The second issue was whether CBT was better thanother available treatments which involve activity as part of thecurriculum. The outcomes of the study indicated that CBT that areactive in nature are effective. CBT made marked improvements inemotional state, intensity of pain and cognitive measures of copingwith the pain. Additionally, pain-related behaviour and level offunctioning, both in an individual and a social context were improved. The results of this study led to the conclusion that CBT is indeed aneffective treatment for chronic pain in adults. So, too, is behaviouraltherapy. The study raised certain issues which would be best consideredin other studies, because attempting to treat chronic pain from apsychological perspective is quite a difficult endeavour. The outcomesof such treatment cannot always be broken down to determine whichvariable caused or helped to cause a particular outcome. Especiallywhere psychological methodologies and cognitive evaluations areconcerned, there is an ambiguity in proving the cause and effect ofresearch methods that is not easily overcome. The treatment of chronicpain must be recognised as an ongoing and complex process with asignificantly complicating number of variables involved. Even when thegreatest efforts are made to ensure the independent performance ofprofessionals and to shield the patients from any hint of bias, thenarrowing of treatment and research conditions is ext remely difficult. The acceptance of chronic pain involves intentionally allowingpain, with all of its cognitive and emotional implications, to bepresent in ones life, when the willingness results in increasedfunctioning capabilities for the patient. Acceptance means respondingto pain without attempting to avoid or control it and continuing tofunction regardless of the presence of chronic pain. Acceptance isespecially pertinent when previous attempts at control or avoidancehave limited the quality of the patients life. Patients sufferingfrom chronic pain who take steps to accept it report fewer instances ofanxiety, medical intervention and depression. Two elements are neededto produce acceptance: pain willingness and activity engagement. Thedevelopment of acceptance is an ongoing process that progresses withexperience of pain and relevant social factors. Further, acceptance ofchronic pain involves choosing not to become embroiled in fruitlessinternal struggles that may increase the intensity of the pa in and itsability to disrupt active functioning. Acceptance is a newpsychological approach and conceives human suffering in new terms.Acceptance is located in the cognitive and behavioural approaches andtherefore has empirical psychological traditions to lend itcredibility. One study demonstrated that diminishing anxiety and augmentedacceptance of chronic pain might transfer sufferers from adysfunctional coping approach to a successful one. The studyempirically categorised patients suffering from chronic pain into threecategories: dysfunctional, interpersonally distressed or adaptivecopers. The researchers in the study believed that identifying thecharacteristics that distinguish one group from another may help tocrystallise the behavioural mechanisms that facilitate acclimation topain. The subjects in the study were classified according to theMultidimensional Pain Inventory and relative scores on pain acceptanceand pain-related anxiety were examined. The results demonstrated thatpatients in the dysfunctional group cited more anxiety related to theirchronic pain as well as lower acceptance of pain than those who wereinterpersonally distressed or copers. Additional analysis showed acontinued differentiation between the dysfunctional group and theothers. It was concluded that accepting pain and experiencing anxietylinked with chronic pain are individual behavioural functions ofacclimation to chronic pain, and that pain-related anxiety is a fairlyreliable predictor of adjustment. Another study measured acceptance of chronic pain using the ChronicPain Acceptance Questionnaire (CPAQ). The study was predicated uponthe theory that accepting chronic pain involves lessening unfruitfulendeavours to evade or regulate pain and instead to pursue individuallymeaningful activities. It has been suggested that accepting chronicpain can result in augmented functioning in patients suffering fromchronic pain, and that acceptance can even overcome depression and painseverity to a certain extent. This study explored the mechanics of theCPAQ in a detailed fashion and found that patient participation invalued activities despite chronic pain, and willingness to feel painwere the only reliable measures of patient functioning in the CPAQ. Thestudy subsequently suggested a revision of the CPAQ. Further, theresearchers asserted that the acceptance of chronic pain must be anintentional endeavour on the part of the patient. In order to achieveacceptance, the patient must continue person al activity and maintainsome level of functioning, even if pain is experienced while doing so.Taking an active and accepting approach to pain facilitates continuedfunctioning, and diminished functioning will follow for the patient whosuccumbs to or attempts to avoid pain. The idea of continuing tofunction even when suffering from chronic pain is somewhat foreign toWestern societies, where pain is generally a thing to be controlled andovercome before normal functioning may resume. In this respect,patients and perhaps medical professionals alike need to bere-educated. Unwanted feelings are a part of life and are often beyondthe control of the medical profession. Patients may require detailedexplanations about the causes of their pain in order to move towardacceptance. The acceptance of chronic pain is becoming more and moresignificant in discovering the most prudent way to deal with it. Still another project on acceptance of chronic pain analysed theresults of a treatment regime for patients suffering from complicatedchronic pain. The regime was based upon concepts of acceptance of painas a fresh approach to chronic pain and upon ways to enable patientstoward optimal functioning despite their pain. The treatment programmeconsisted of a three to four week stay in a hospital, whereparticipants engaged in behavioural and other interventions aimed ataugmenting the frequency of daily activity and willingness to live withpain. The outcomes of the treatment showed improvements in severity ofpain and daily functioning. The most remarkable improvements occurredin the areas of depression, daily pain-related hours of rest and aphysical task. There were also reductions in the amount of treatmentneeded and requested. Engagement in activity and willingness to acceptpain are two of the most important components of acceptance of pain.Further investigations into treatment methods sh owed that the study wassound and the results significant. In addition, the participants wereassessed a few months after they received treatment and most of theimprovements were still present. This study is of particular importancefor several reasons. First, it examined the effects of acceptance-basedtreatment in a long-term sense. Patients who are faced withexperiencing chronic pain indefinitely, perhaps for the remainder oftheir lives, need long-term solutions. The pain that the patients inthis study experienced was intense and ongoing. They had allexperienced many different types of treatment prior to acceptancetreatment and had found them to be unsatisfactory in improving theirquality of life. Also, the study measured improvement in a variety ofelements using data gleaned from a plethora of sources. Additionally,the outcomes of this study hold clinical as well as empiricalsignificance, and therefore show that acceptance based treatmentsshould begin to make their way out of the ps ychological testing arenaand into the hospitals where chronic pain patients receive treatment ona daily basis. This particular study included a scope of mental healthand health professionals, from nurses and doctors to clinicalpsychologists. The treatment discussed here, while acceptance-based,can be used in a multi-faceted treatment setting. It is adaptable andcan be altered to suit professionals from a variety of backgrounds, sothat they feel comfortable and competent administering it. Further, itbrings health professionals together and offers a holistic treatmentapproach for the patient. Another study examining similar themes also took a long-term approachto the relationship between acceptance of chronic pain and patientfunctioning. A sample of chronic pain sufferers was assessed at twointervals. Interval average was approximately 4 months for eachpatient. The results of the study showed that acceptance and pain wereessentially not related. There was a slightly significant relationshipbetween patient functioning at Assessment 2 and pain at Assessment 2;however, there was an established relationship between acceptance atAssessment 1 and patient functioning at Assessment 2. Chronic painsufferers who cited a greater extent of acceptance at Assessment 1 alsoreported higher functioning, lower consumption of medication and higherwork status at Assessment 2. The study concluded that willingness toendure chronic pain and to remain active despite chronic pain mayresult in healthier functioning for patients. Given this, the potentialof pain management strategies founded upon a cceptance of pain should befurther explored. The acceptance of pain has also been examined in a social context, asmany of the behaviours of those with chronic pain occur in socialcircumstances, where social factors will influence their experiences.Investigations into the relationship between punishing, solicitous anddistracting responses from important people in the life of the patientand the acceptance of pain were carried out with over 200 patientsusing the Chronic Pain Acceptance Questionnaire and theMultidimensional Pain Inventory. The results revealed that responses ofpunishment and solicitation from important figures in the life of thepatient lowered the acceptance of pain. This was true regardless of theage and educational level of the patient, as well as his or her painintensity and the extent of overall support from the significant other.This study has important implications for the theory that socialinfluences can encourage or discourage activity in patients sufferingfrom chronic pain. Social factors may also influenc e the patientsacceptance of chronic pain in terms of being willing for the pain to bepresent without attempting to control or evade it. As the acceptance of chronic pain has become increasingly important inthe scientific field, empirical instruments have begun to take it intoaccount in measuring various phenomena connected with chronic pain.Vlieger at al (2006) developed the Pain Solutions Questionnaire(PaSol), which was constructed to assess efforts to change or eliminatepain (assimilative efforts) and efforts to alter life goals subsequentto the realisation that pain cannot be eliminated (accommodativeefforts). To test the instrument, 476 adult sufferers of chronic painwere asked to record data regarding the issues in their lives that areconnected with the pain. The participants were asked to comment ontheir efforts to solve pain, quality of life despite the presence ofpain, acceptance of the impossibility of eliminating pain and theirpersonal views regarding possible solutions for their pain. Theresults of the study showed that the Meaningfulness of Life Despitepain scale was significant in commenting upon affecti ve distress, whilethe Solving Pain scale made singular strides in the same area. Thecumulative effects of the data point to the notion that continuedstriving toward altering or eliminating pain when the pain isindestructible can raise distress and the level of incapacitationexperienced by the patient. The role of acceptance in dealing with chronic pain patients withsuicidal intent has not been extensively explored, nor has thefrequency of suicidal thoughts in those suffering from chronic pain.The incidence of successful suicides is believed to be higher inchronic pain sufferers in comparison with the wider population. At thetime of this study suicide was the ninth leading cause of death in theUnited States and therefore a worrying phenomenon. Most of theliterature on the subject of suicide and chronic pain focuses onmanaging depression. One study took a step toward providing a morecomprehensive view of chronic pain and suicide by investigating thelinks between suicidal thoughts and pain intensity, pain-relatedincapacitation, and efforts to overcome pain. In a group of 200patients suffering from chronic pain, 6.5% reported suicidal intent onthe Beck Depression Inventory. The patients with suicidal intent anddepression were compared with a group suffering from depression butdisplayi ng no significant signs of suicidal intent. Both groupsreported elevated states of pain and incapacitation, and more frequentuse of passive coping mechanisms than a comparative non-depressedgroup. The two depressed groups failed to demonstrate differences intheir experiences of pain, and it was established that the presence ofdepression effected the patients functioning status rather than theexistence of suicidal ideation. Overall, the presence of suicidalideation was low, though it was noted that when suicidal thoughtsappear in the mental processes of chronic pain patients theirdepression should be treated immediately and aggressively. Furtherresearch into the role that acceptance can play in treating suicidalsufferers of chronic pain is needed. The introduction of acceptancetechniques would, of course, have to be coupled with appropriatetreatment for clinical depression such as medication and therapy. Worrying may have a significant affect upon depressed patients withchronic pain. The wider effects of living with chronic pain are oftenunpleasant and may result in financial and relationship problems aswell as the more obvious health adversities. Worry is a natural humanresponse when faced with circumstances such as these and the prospectof a very uncertain future. One study examined the worry and relatedattempts at problem solving of chronic pain patients. The study alsoexplored whether there were significant differences between thoseindividuals actively seeking treatment for chronic pain and those whowere not seeking treatment. Refraining from actively seeking treatmentcould indicate an elevated level of acceptance and a lower amount ofworry, or it could stem from a fear to be treated and discover thecause and implications of the pain. Further, the study was interest inwhether the degree of worry and attempts to solve the pain couldpredict the level of incapacitation, pain and dep ression. To assessthese components, 185 adults with chronic pain completed questionnaireswhich enquired about issues such as worry, catastrophic thinking andintensity of pain. The results indicated that regarding the predictivevalue of worrying and problem solving, worrying alone could explaindepression. The overall existence of worry was not abnormally elevatedin this group, although the extent of the worry was conclusively linkedwith lower pain tolerance, more depression, disability and catastrophicthoughts about pain. There were also significant findings that worryis directly related to diminished confidence and self-control. Further,the intensity of pain, catastrophic thinking about pain and worry had asingular contribution in explaining depression, while problem solvingdid not contribute at all. Related to studies about chronic pain and worry are those which addresspain-related trepidation. Within the specific context of chronic backpain, there is a growing body of evidence to suggest that pain-relatedfear is more incapacitating than the actual back pain. To examine thisclaim, three independent studies were conducted. The first studyexamined the claim that fear that is associated with pain is moredisabling than the pain itself when assessed by self-report. Thesecond study investigated the relationship between fear of pain andbehavioural performance , and the third looked at whether pain-relatedfear and the severity of pain could predict poor behaviouralfunctioning. The three studies showed similar results, namely thatself-reported disability and behavioural functioning were damaged bypain-related trepidation. If the fear of pain is proved to be moredisabling than the pain itself, this could have strong implications fortreatment programmes that include a fear-reduction module . Similarmechanisms to those involved with acceptance of chronic pain could beutilised; patients could be provided with detailed information abouttheir pain and encouraged with the findings that reducing fear andbeginning to accept their pain can lead to increased functioning andtheir ability to live their lives as they want despite the presence ofchronic pain. The manner in which pain is perceived was further examined in a studyof the pain women experience during mammography and the pain-copingstrategies the women used. Subsequent to completing questionnairesabout the pain of the procedure and how they cope with daily pain inlife, it was discovered that a vast majority (92%) of women describedthe experience as painful, but there were significant discrepancies inthe intensity of pain experienced by different individuals. Some womenreported intense pain while others reported only minor discomfort.Those women who attempted to use coping mechanisms and catastrophisingto deal with the pain experienced higher pain sensations than did womenwho ignored the pain. As mentioned before, the breadth of studies addressing theeffectiveness of cognitive behavioural treatments is growing, but onearea that has not been extensively researched is the interactionbetween transformations in behavioural elements while treatment isbeing carried out. To help fill this gap in the research, one studyexamined the contributions made by physical activity and stress totreatment outcomes. The study concentrated on patients suffering fromlower back pain, and the treatment programme involved cognitivebehavioural therapy coupled with an exercise regiment. The resultsshowed improvements in the intensity of the pain emotional state,depression and level of activity compared with the levels the patientsdemonstrated before undergoing treatment. Further analyses of thetests revealed that the interactions between alternations in anxietyand outcomes for treatment were completely separate from the changesthat occurred in the patients abilities to engage in physicalactivity. The changes that the patients experienced with regard to painanxiety could be even more significant than changes regarding physicalability, in the context of predicting behavioural changes. This hasimplications for treatment programmes that focus on augmenting physicalperformance as opposed to cognitive progress. If pain-related anxietyis more important in treating chronic pain patients than their physicalcondition, then many treatment programmes will have to be restructured. The importance of treating things like anxiety and fear in chronic painpatients has been examined previously, specifically in a study wherethe instruments used to research fear and anxiety were tested.Instruments such as the Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale (PASS), theFear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ), the Fear of PainQuestionnaire (FPQ) and the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory(STAI) were examined to assess qualities about their respectivevariables. The study involved a small number (45) of patients who hadbeen referred to a pain management clinic. The various instruments wereused to compare their utility for analysing fear and anxiety in personswith chronic pain. The results showed that examining anxiety responsesto pain is more instructing than generally assessing anxiety related toa number of variables such as disability, pain and pain behaviour. TheFABQ and the PASS both produced results that showed greater variationin pain, pain behaviour and disability when compar ed with the resultsof the FPQ and the STAI, which measure generalised responses to chronicpain. This study has had implications for the psychological communityin terms of which instrument is most reliable. The temptation forprofessionals would be to use the instrument that will give themresults that are closest to the ones they or the patient is lookingfor, but this study shows that professionals must exercise caution whenchoosing an instrument for use with chronic pain patients, as differentinstruments focus on differing elements. Ideally, a multi-instrumentapproach should be used to compose a holistic picture of the way thatthe chronic pain patient is affected by fear and anxiety in theirlives. The research regarding acceptance-based treatments for persons withchronic pain also has implications for the duration that a particulartype of treatment should be attempted. Depending upon the cognitivestate of the individual, carrying on with a treatment that has run itscourse and had little or no impact may cause detriment to the cognitivestate of the patient, and in turn negatively affect his or her overallprogress. When the pain experienced by a patient is disrupting to hislife and various interventions are unsuccessful, a fresh strategy isnecessary to focus the energies of the patient in a differentdirection. New coping mechanisms need to be introduced that are basedin cognitive behavioural principles. To this end, a study was designedto explore the possibilities of a treatment programme including bothcoping and acceptance based procedures. This study asked 200 chronicpain sufferers to complete several inventories about their pain, andthe acceptance of or coping with their pain . The results suggest that,in support of other studies of acceptance-based treatment programmes,attempting to alter pain-related cognitions and behaviours increasescontact with them and can exacerbate them in the long run. Theinstrument used established a divide between actions that are conductedfor the purpose of eliminating or avoiding pain, and those which areconducted for the purpose of greater quality of life. Possessing awillingness to live with pain and the circumstances that flow from thepain and using various management strategies to cope with the pain is apositive way to deal with chronic pain. The data resulting from thestudy of the instrument used (the BPCI) provides further support forthe basic tenets of the acceptance approach to chronic pain. One of theproblems with the study is that it records responses at a single pointin time; the physical and emotional state of chronic pain patientsinevitably varies from day to day. Further testing would be needed toestablish whet her these results could be replicated over time. TheBPCI brings the concept of acceptance of pain into a measurablecontext. By assessing avoidance and control attempts it can be helpfulfor patients dealing with chronic pain to recover a measure of theirability to function. The acceptance versus coping battle continued to be waged in acomparison the relative merits of coping and acceptance in a sample of230 chronic pain sufferers. Here, the researchers based their ideas ofcoping on the assumption that coping allows for a relatively rigidapproach of pain control. Conversely, acceptance of pain can introduceflexibility into the patients approach and allow for increased activityand a partial return to normal functioning. This study examined thespecifically utilitarian aspects of using coping or acceptance ofchronic pain. The participants completed the Coping StrategiesQuestionnaire (CSQ) and the Chronic Pain Acceptance Questionnaire(CPAQ). The results revealed a much strong correlation between degreeof acceptance and levels of distress and disability than coping. Inbrief, measures of acceptance account more reliably for variances inmeasures of patient functioning than can measures of coping. Evenunder research conditions designed to augment the variance re lated tocoping mechanisms, measures of acceptance performed significantlybetter. The authors conclude by stating that acceptance-based modelsshould provoke professionals dealing with chronic pain patients to finda space for them in their approaches to treatment. Models of treatmentshould contain in-built flexibility to allow for the use of theeffective approach for various circumstances. When acceptance-based approaches for dealing with chronic pain werecompared with cognitive-control-based approaches in a small studyinvolving forty participants, the participants using theacceptance-based treatment demonstrated higher tolerance to paincompared with those using the cognitive-based approach. Even whenexposed to a high-pain context the participants who had undergone theACT (acceptance) intervention fared much better than those whoexperienced cognitive interventions only. Those who experienced the ACTintervention were able to tolerate greater levels of pain than thecognitive participants. A further finding of this study is related tomeasuring the believability of pain. The acceptance treatment was foundto reduce the believability about pain. These marked changes in theacceptance participants are considered to be the result oftransformations enacted within private thoughts and interpretations ofpainful events. One significant problem with this study is that theparticipant s were not experiencing chronic pain; another is that thesample size was relatively small (40). Some experts have questioned whether Acceptance and Commitment Therapy(ACT) is fundamentally distinct from traditional cognitive behaviouraltherapy. When the case of a girl with chronic idiopathic pain wasexamined, those offering a critique of it concluded that it is notcertain whether ACT is answering the question of chronic painmanagement in an altogether different way, or if it is merely providingan answer similar to the one provided by Cognitive Behavioural Therapy(CBT), just providing it in a format that is easier for patients toapprehend. The authors comment that what makes ACT distinct from CBTis the focus on acceptance versus alterations in cognitions, and anemphasis on maintaining a level of functioning despite negativefeelings and thoughts. The authors suggest that CBT also placesemphasis upon values and that the practical function of ACT is to makethe emphasis on values explicit and increase the acceptance of therapyby the patient. In the study itself, a 14-year-old girl who had been experiencing joint painfor three years was observed to see how she would react to treatment.Her medical history included other conditions and ailments, but noneparticularly relevant to the present topic. Rigorous testing andpharmacotherapy had been of no avail to the adolescent, and theresearchers constructed an intricate profile of her depression, painintensity, propensity to attempt coping, functional ability and valuebased goals. Her functioning was extremely limited and the behavioursexhibited by family members had impeded her progress as well ashindering the functioning of the entire family. The components of ACTwere employed and significant improvements were noted. Though this mayimmediately imply success, the authors of the critique note that moreinformation is needed regarding the complexity of the patientscondition and medical history. Further, they propose that severalfactors could have accounted for the improvement in em otional state anddaily functioning of the patient. One of these could have been the factthat the patient entered into therapeutic treatment for the first time.What is significant could be that she was finally being treated in atherapeutic context and not particularly that she was being treatedwith ACT. In addition, the nature of the therapist-patient relationshipcould have provided extra motivation for the patient and helped toovercome the negative family dynamic that was promoting her incapacity.Further, the change in the family dynamics themselves could havefacilitated improvement in the patient. As the family learned how toreact in ways that would facilitate functioning and learned to handletheir own emotions, a healthier environment was created for all familymembers. Though the researchers who worked directly with the patientbelieve that it was the utilisation of strategies of acceptance thatenabled the patient to decrease her use of avoidance mechanisms, thescores for emotional strategies were low before and after treatment.This argument raises pertinent queries regarding the distinctiveness ofacceptance-based therapy, and whether it really is a new development orwhether it is merely dressing previously used CBT techniques in atrendier way that makes them more easily accepted by the patient.Either way, advances in making effective treatments more accessible tothe patient population are as important as conceiving new treatments. Studies that have examined the value of accepting pain in determiningthe quality of life in patients with chronic pain have found thataccepting pain is linked to being able to engage in routine lifeactivities. In one study 120 patients suffering from chronic painwere asked to complete a series of questionnaires that assessed variousfactors related to their pain. The factors included intensity of pain,mental health and acceptance of pain. The study was divided into twophases. The first phase emphasised the unique contribution thatacceptance can make to dealing with chronic pain, and the second phasefocused on acceptance of chronic malady using the Illness CognitionQuestionnaire. The results of the first phase demonstrate thataccepting chronic pain can go some of the way toward offering anexplanation for mental health that stretches beyond the ways thatintensity of pain affects the lives of patients. Further, acceptance ofpain can explain mental health more adequately than can catastro phisingabout pain. Accepting pain has again been proven to reduce the levelsof catastrophising in patients. Another interesting finding of thefirst phase of this study is the effect of the belief that alteringones thoughts can influence pain. This should be further examined inthe context of acceptance of chronic pain. This can be explained by thefact that part of acceptance is releasing control of all of theinstances of pain and all of the consequences that stem from it. The second phase of the study sought to examine whether or not theeffect of accepting pain was a strong one in terms of improvingphysical condition. Here, the Pain Catastrophising Scale (PCS) wasused to measure pain catastrophising. The researchers also sought toexamine the legitimisation of acceptance in cognitive control. In bothphases of the study, the acceptance of chronic pain played a uniquepart in the anticipation of the mental health state of patients. Theacceptance of chronic pain did lead to better mental health. Further,accepting chronic pain was found to be independent of dramatising pain.The researches concluded that they had explored the intricacies of themeaning of acceptance in the realm of chronic pain, and the twoimportant elements that were examined were found to be of importance aspredicted. The researchers reiterated that acceptance of chronic painis exemplified by normal functioning, and accepting chronic painincludes the acknowledgment that finding a cure for t heir condition isnot likely and that any efforts to do this only detract from wells ofenergy that could be better spent in efforts to lead a normal life. When the meanings of ordinary conceptions of chronic painare explored, eight differing definitions were offered. Common to allof these definitions was the necessity of engaging ones attention awayfrom chronic pain to other activities and elements of life that are notdirectly related to the pain. Part of acceptance is coming to embracethe fact that a complete cure is unlikely to materialise. Further,acceptance involves the courageous step of making intentional effortsto adapt to pain. Patients must also accept the counterintuitive notionthat acceptance of pain is not a sign of defeat. Although attempting tocontrol the pain is often viewed as being contrary to acceptance ofpain, the idea of taking control of the pain is consistent with theidea of acceptance, in the sense that it means mastering the presenceof pain in ones daily life instead of repeating desperate and vainattempts to eliminate the pain altogether or to convince oneself thatit can be successfully corralled. Again, accept ing that pain is a partof life is counter-cultural in many modern societies, where medicaladvances and diversity of treatment often provide a false sense ofsecurity about the medical professions ability to treat every ailment.Yet the discussion above has repeatedly shown that attempts to controlchronic pain result in negative consequences for the patient.Acceptance as a broad concept has certainly received a substantialamount of scientific attention and is becoming increasingly establishedas a valid treatment. Whether it is materially different from all otherforms of treatment used to treat chronic pain is another question. Asthe study above demonstrated, many of the elements of ACT can be foundin other treatments, namely CBT. Whether this damages the validity ofACT as a treatment in its own right must be the subject of furtherresearch. One thing is certain: the importance of acceptance in thetreatment of patients suffering from chronic pain has been established and is not likely to be convincingly contradicted at this stage.

Grapes of Wrath Essay Moving From Me to We - 793 Words

Moving From Me to We in The Grapes of Wrath nbsp; nbsp;The play, The Grapes of Wrath, explores how the Joad family adapts to a new reality, how their concern changes from their own family and problems, to other families and their difficulties, until their concern includes all of the migrants and the larger problems of unemployment and prejudice. The Joad family’s journey to California results in the breakup of their family. The very first cause of the breakup of the individual family was with the loss of their land. The Joad family had lived there for many generations and had very strong ties to the land. Losing their land was equivalent to losing their family history. This is expressed by â€Å"She puts them in her pocket, closes†¦show more content†¦You can tell that Casy is having second thoughts about leaving for out west, and it’s almost like he is having a premonition. He tries to convince Tom that something funny is going on, but Tom just ignores him. Casy responds by saying â€Å"Oh, what the hell! So goddamn hard to say anything† (Galati 37). Uncle John is also having bad feelings and he expresses this to Casy when he says â€Å"I got a feelin’ I’m bringin’ bad luck to my own folks† (Galati 41).nbsp; Furthering the family break up, Noah, who was also traveli ng with the family, found his place when they were at the river. He realized that he could catch fish and never be sad. Noah did not want to leave his family but he knew that it wasn’t going to get any better. While the Joad family was breaking up a shift was happening. After the family looses Connie, Casy and Tom, Ma knew that she is just supposed to go on. When she tells Pa â€Å"Man, he lives in a jerk—baby born an’ a man dies, an’ that’s a jerk—gets a farm an’ loses his farm, an’ that’s a jerk.† (Galati 81). Ma is realizing that there is a circle of life, that the death of one may bring life to another, as shown in the end when Rose of Sharon feeds her breast milk for her dead baby to a dying man. Ma’s way of thinking is best illustrated by the quotenbsp; Cant wipe us out. Cant lick us. Well go on forever. Cause were the people. Ma Joad was going through this shift in thinking. Through many struggles and multiple losses, the Joad family endured many nearlyShow MoreRelated Symbols and Symbolism in John Steinbecks The Grapes of Wrath2004 Words   |  9 PagesSymbols and Symbolism in John Steinbecks The Grapes of Wrath      Ã‚   Symbolism in The Grapes of Wrath is extremely complex, with many images drawn from the Old and New Testaments.   However, Steinbeck as usual was eclectic in his use of symbols, and a great deal of the novel is given to either pagan and universal archetypes, or to highly original meanings unique to the authors own vision and experience.   While acknowledging the Judeo-Christian content, these other symbols are just as importantRead MoreThemes, Styles, And Techniques Essay2289 Words   |  10 PagesSteinbeck INTRO INTRO INTRO INTRO INTRO INTRO INTRO When looking over Of Mice and Men, we come to realize that this work portrays various questions when it comes to man and his life. The main question that this work asks when the story is told is â€Å"is man destined to live alone, a solitary wanderer on the face of the earth, or is it the fate of man to care for man, to go in his way in companionship with another?† Should we ride solo or join others along the way? That is one of the themes of this work. ThisRead MoreTheme Of Creation And Expulsion Of Cain From The Garden Of Eden Essay2550 Words   |  11 Pages When looking over Of Mice and Men, we come to realize that this work portrays various questions when it comes to man and his life. The main question that this work asks when the story is told is â€Å"is man destined to live alone, a solitary wanderer on the face of the earth, or is it the fate of man to care for man, to go in his way in companionship with another?† Should we ride solo or join others along the way? That is one of the themes of this work. This theme is like the theme that occurs in theRead MoreOne flew over the Cuckoos Nest VS. the Grapes of Wrath - Comparative Essay1590 Words   |  7 PagesONE FLEW OVER THE CUCKOOS NEST VS. GRAPES OF WRATH - COMPARATIVE ESSAY - ONTARIO UNIVERSITY ENGLISH GRADE 12 False riches, consisting of money, houses and lands, acquired by selfish means at cost to others and thereafter used selfishly, are almost always used for the oppression of other people – (Joseph Franklin Rutherford). One Flew over the Cookoo’s Nest (Ken Kesey) and the Grapes of Wrath (John Steinbeck) are two novels about oppression, rebellion and self-sacrifice. BothRead More Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck Essay example9610 Words   |  39 PagesOf Mice and Men by John Steinbeck John Steinbeck was born on 27 Feb 1902 in Salinas, California, not far from the area where Of Mice and Men is set. He attended Stanford University, but never settled to one area of study and left without obtaining a degree. In his twenties, he pursued a varied working life, including that of an itinerant ranch worker, similar to the characters portrayed in the novel. His early writings had some success, and established him as an author interested inRead MoreThe Studio System Essay14396 Words   |  58 Pagesbusiness. The Hollywood Studio System: A History is the first book to describe and analyse the complete development, classic operation, and reinvention of the global corporate entities which produce and distribute most of the films we watch. Starting in 1920, Adolph Zukor, head of Paramount Pictures, over the decade of the 1920s helped to fashion Hollywood into a vertically integrated system, a set of economic innovations which was firmly in place by 1930. For theRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 PagesDutchess Community College; James E. Parejko, Chicago State University; Robert Sessions, Kirkwood Community College; and Stephanie Tucker, California State University Sacramento. Thinking and writing about logical reasoning has been enjoyable for me, but special thanks go to my children, Joshua, 8, and Justine, 3, for comic relief during the months of writing. This book is dedicated to them. For the 2012 edition: This book is dedicated to my wife Hellan whose good advice has improved the bookRead MoreA Picatrix Miscellany52019 Words   |  209 PagesA PicA Trix MiscellAny Underground Edition 2007 e.v. CONTENTS On the Picatrix I. Introduction to the Picatrix (The Aim of the Sage) of al-Majriti, Maslamati ibn Ahmad II. Summary of the Contents of the Picatrix III. Excerpt from a Lecture on Alchemy by Terence McKenna On the Moon and the Lunar Mansions IV. Extracts on the Moon V. The Mansions of the Moon: â€Å"On the Creation, Proportion and Composition of the Heavens for the Fashioning of Images† VI. The Picatrix: Lunar Mansions in Western AstrologyRead MoreModern History.Hsc.2012 Essay25799 Words   |  104 PagesGermany complied. - Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. He repeatedly warned the U.S. would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law and U.S. ideas of human rights. Wilson was under pressure from former president Theodore Roosevelt, who denounced German acts as piracy. - In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. The German Foreign minister, in the Zimmermann Telegram, told Mexico that U.S. entry was likely once unrestrictedRead MoreRastafarian79520 Words   |  319 PagesRastafari This page intentionally left blank Rastafari From Outcasts to Culture Bearers Ennis Barrington Edmonds 2003 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the Universitys objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala

Do public and private affairs between the two families in Romeo and Juliet count as separate or as one unit in society Essay Example For Students

Do public and private affairs between the two families in Romeo and Juliet count as separate or as one unit in society Essay I will be looking at the conflicts between families in Romeo and Juliet, and how they are shown in the play. Some conflicts are conveyed as private, the other as public, I will try to describe a public conflict, and a private conflict. I will define a public conflict as an argument shown outside the household; more than one family would be involved, and it would be in the sight of the public or onlookers. I will define a private conflict as an argument which is taken place within the household of one family. I will look at two scenes which clearly show two very different conflicts between families, I will look at how they affect the outside world and change relations between their own families. Romeo and Juliet is an infamous play by William Shakespeare, it is a classic romance play about two lovers torn between an ancient conflicts between their families. Romeo belongs to the Montague household, and Juliet to the Capulet, there is a conflict between the two families which is widely known throughout the town. Romeo and Juliet meet at a Capulet party and immediately fall in love, as the both of them are from families which have an ancient quarrel with each other, they sneak around with their private love, and eventually get secretly get married without anyone knowing. I will now look at my first scene in depth and end in a conclusion to whether this conflict if private or public. Romeo is on his way back from his secret wedding with Juliet when he bumps into an argument between Tybalt and Mercutio. Tybalt wants a fight with Romeo for intruding into the Capulet party, Tybalt heard Romeos voice and wants revenge as Romeo has caused shame to the Capulet family; Mercutio is defending the Montague family on behalf of Romeo, Benvolio on the other hand wants to make peace between the both of them, he is trying to persuade the two men that people are watching and this fight will result is the men involved with the fight being executed by the Prince. This scene had begun with a violent tone, and I can see that things are going to get much worse in time. As usual, neither the Capulet nor the Montague care about the consequences, only about getting their own way, in this particular case, Tybalt wants a fight with Romeo. Romeo returns happy in love with the cousin of the man who now wants to kill him. He returns from his secret marriage, not being allowed to share his good news with the world, to find another fight on the streets of Rome. Romeo is now related to Tybalt, therefore he is treating him like a brother, Romeo is being very nice to Tybalt without Tybalt knowing the reason why, very confused, Tybalt takes the kindness as sarcasm, this makes him angrier. TYBALT Romeo, the hate I bear thee can afford No better term than this,thou art a villain. ROMEO Tybalt, the reason that I have to love thee Doth much excuse the appertaining rage To such a greeting: villain am I none; Therefore farewell; I see thou knowst me not. Here, Tybalt is insulting Romeo, calling him a villain, which was a big insult in the time that the play was written. Romeo replies with an intricate answer, he says to Tybalt that the reason he loves him, which is unknown to Tybalt, excuses this insult, he says that he is not a villain, and that Tybalt does not know well enough to judge him. This shows an example of how Romeo is being insulted by the Capulet family, and says here that he loves Tybalt for an unknown reason, which angers Tybalt even more, Romeo says that he is not a villain and rejects the insults in a loving way. Mercutio is now confused to why Romeo is taking all that Tybalt is saying to him, in Mercutios eyes, his best friend in deluded, confused, Mercutio does not understand why Romeo is not arguing back to Tybalt. Secrets by Tim Winton EssayHe parents then begin to speak of her marriage to Paris; she begins to object for the first time without the reason being allowed to be known. Her parents are confused to why she is doing this, Juliet is also a Catholic and cannot be married to two people, and this is a private conflict with God and a sin against her religion. Her parents now become frustrated with Juliets objection as a daughter was looked at unimportant ad had to do whatever she was told, including getting married, her parents do now understand her, and begin to get angry with her. Her father now begins to shout at Juliet and call her names of insult; he doesnt know of her recent marriage. Juliets nurse tries to stick up for Juliet, but it is no use, her father has had enough of Juliets objection and takes it as a very big insult. He calls Juliet a curse to the family rather than a blessing which was what she was before; she is very upset by now and doesnt know what to do. Her father exits the scene frustrated, Juliet tries to talk to her mother, she is speaking of her love for Romeo in indirect words, she says that she is missing him as they only spent one night together after their marriage and she is very upset that Romeo had been banished to Mantua. Her mother thinks she is speaking of Tybalt, and aggress that she misses him also, but they have to get over what has happened, she is saying that the punishment given to Romeo was very fair. Juliet and her mother are speaking not directly of the same thing, but the conversation makes sense, the two do not understand each other. Juliet now has no choice but to marry Paris, this will result in a private conflict between herself and her religion which forbids two marriages at the same time. Her argument with her father was a private conflict as it took place in her own home with no one watching what was happening. Juliet returns home happy from her wedding to result in the happy scene ending in a private argument with her family. In conclusion, I have looked at two very different scenes to answer my title question; Do public and private affairs between the two families in Romeo and Juliet count as separate or as one unit in society? I would say that the conflicts between the two families are different as long as where they have taken place, in this situation; one conflict has taken place in a home, the other on the streets of Rome in sight of the public. My first scene was very serious as it resulted in two deaths of the two opposing families; Romeo was then banished to a place very far away where he could not keep in touch in Juliet, this is a private conflict as it involves private feeling of love between the young married couple, furthermore, it is more private as no one can know of the their marriage. My second scene was a private conflict which was taken place within the household of the Capulet family; no one could see what was going on apart from the people involved in the actual argument, which were Juliet, her mother, father and the nurse. On the other hand, my first scene was taken in sight of others, people who were not involved with the fight; this kind of argument is then known to others, which is different from a private argument that no one can see. I would answer the title question by saying that private affairs only count as one unit in society when they are shown publicly where the society can see, however, private conflicts do also affect the society as their consequences are different, such as Juliet being unhappy that she now has to marry Paris, this will then affect her relationship with him. Private and public affairs do count as one on society, as it depends on what the particular conflict is.

Organizational Structure Questions and Exercises Essay Example

Organizational Structure: Questions and Exercises Essay Download this Document for Free training in time management; and training to think more positively and realistically about sources of job stress. Tentative evidence suggests that these applications are useful in reducing physiological arousal, sleep disturbances, and self-reported tension and anxiety. E. Work-Life Balance Programs An increasing number of organizations are providing work-life balance programs and employees are beginning to demand them.These are programs that are designed to help employees’ lead more productive and balanced lives and can include mental and physical fitness programs, coffee bars, and cafeteria health food. Work-life programs are believed to result in lower-health care costs in part due to stress reduction. 60 Chapter 14: Organizational Structure Chapter Summary Questions and Exercises prepared by Alan Saks. I. What Is Organizational Structure? Organizational structure is the manner in which an organization divides its labour into specific tasks a nd achieves coordination among these tasks.It broadly refers to how the organization’s individuals and groups are put together or organized to accomplish work. Organizational structure intervenes between goals and organizational accomplishments and thus influences organizational effectiveness. Structure affects how effectively and efficiently group effort is coordinated. To achieve its goals, an organization has to divide labour among its members and then coordinate what has been divided. II. The Division and Coordination of Labour Labour has to be divided because individuals have physical and intellectual limitations. There are two basic dimensions to the division of labour, a ertical dimension and a horizontal dimension. Once labour is divided, it must be coordinated to achieve organizational effectiveness. A. Vertical Division of Labour The vertical division of labour is concerned primarily with apportioning authority for planning and decision making. A couple of key theme s or issues underlie the vertical division of labour. Autonomy and Control. The domain of decision making and authority is reduced as the number of levels in the hierarchy increases. A flatter hierarchy pushes authority lower and involves people further down the hierarchy in more decisions.Communication. As labour is progressively divided vertically, timely communication and coordination can become harder to achieve. As the number of levels in the hierarchy increases, filtering is more likely to occur. B. Horizontal Division of Labour The horizontal division of labour involves grouping the basic tasks that must be performed into jobs and then into departments so that the organization can achieve its goals. Just as organizations differ in the extent to which they divide labour vertically, they also differ in the extent of horizontal division of labour.A couple of key themes or issues underlie the horizontal division of labour. Job Design. Job design is an important component in the h orizontal division of labour. The horizontal division of labour strongly affects job design and it has profound implications for the degree of coordination necessary. It also has implications for the vertical division of labour and where control over work processes should logically reside. Differentiation. Differenti ation is the tendency for managers in separate functions or departments to differ in terms of goals, time spans, and interpersonal styles.As organizations engage in increased horizontal division of labour, they usually become more and more differentiated. C. Departmentation One way of grouping jobs is to assign them to departments. The assignment of jobs to departments is called departmentation. It represents one of the core aspects of horizontal division of labour. There are several methods of departmentation. Functional departmentation. Underfunctional departmentation, employees with closely related skills and responsibilities (functions) are located in the same depar tment. The main advantage of functional departmentation is efficiency.It works best in small to medium-sized firms that offer relatively few product lines or services. Product departmentation. Under product departmentation, departments are formed on the basis of a particular product, product line, or service. Each of these departments can operate fairly autonomously. A key advantage is better coordination and fewer barriers to communication among the functional specialists who work on a particular product line. They also have more potential for responding to customers in a timely way. A disadvantage is that product-oriented departments might actually work at cross purposes.Matrix departmentation. Matrix departmentation is an attempt to capitalize simultaneously on the strengths of both functional and product departmentation. Employees remain members of a functional department while also reporting to a product or project manager. As a result, it is very flexible. Problems could arise when product or project managers do not see eye-to-eye with various functional managers and because employees assigned to a product or project team in essence report to a functional manager as well as a product or project manager.Other Forms of Departmentation. Several other forms of departmentation also exist. Under geographic departmentation, relatively self-contained units deliver the organizations products or services in specific geographic territories. Under customer departmentation, relatively self-contained units deliver the organizations products or services to specific customer groups. The obvious goal is to provide better service to each customer group through specialization. Finally, it is not unusual to see hybrid departmentation, which involves some combination of these structures.In other words, a structure based on some mixture of functional, product, geographic, or customer departmentation. They attempt to capitalize on the strengths of various structures, while avo iding the weaknesses of others. D. Basic Methods of Coordinating Divided Labour The tasks that help organizations achieve its goals must be coordinated so that goal accomplishment is realized. Coor dination is the process of facilitating timing, communication, and feedback among work tasks. There are five basic methods of coordination. Direct Supervision. This is a very traditional form of coordination.Working through the chain of command, designated supervisors or managers coordinate the work of their subordinates. Standardization of Work Processes. Some jobs are so routine that the technology itself provides a means of coordination and little direct supervision is necessary for them to be coordinated. Work processes can also be standardized by rules and regulations. Standardization of Outputs. Coordination can also be achieved through the standardization of work outputs. The concern shifts to ensuring that the work meets certain physical and economic standards.Standardization of S kills. Coordination can be achieved through the standardization of skills. This is the case when technicians and professionals know what to expect of each other because of their standard training. Mutual Adjustment. Mutual adjustment relies on informal communication to coordinate tasks. It is useful for coordinating the most simple and the most complicated divisions of labour. 61 The five methods of coordinating divided labour can be crudely ordered in terms of the degree of discretion they permit individual workers in terms of task performance.Direct supervision permits little discretion. Standardization of processes and outputs permits successively more discretion. Finally, standardization of skills and mutual adjustment put even more control into the hands of those who are actually doing the work. E. Other Methods of Coordination Sometimes coordination problems require more customized, elaborate mechanisms. This is especially the case for lateral coordination across highly differ entiated departments. Integ ration is the process of attaining coordination across differentiated departments.In ascending order of elaboration, three methods of achieving integration include the use of liaison roles, task forces, and full-time integrators. Liaison Roles. A liaison role is occupied by a person in one department who is assigned, as part of his or her job, to achieve coordination with another department. The person serves as a part-time link between two departments. Task Forces and Teams. Task forces are temporary groups set up to solve coordination problems across several departments. Representatives from each department are included on a full-time or part-time basis. Integrators.I ntegr ators are organizational members who are permanently assigned to facilitate coordination between departments. They are especially useful for dealing with conflict between (1) highly interdependent departments, (2) which have very diverse goals and orientations, (3) in a very ambiguou s environment. II. Traditional Structural Characteristics Over the years, management scholars and practising managers have agreed on a number of characteristics that summarize the structure of organizations. A. Span of Control The span of control is the number of subordinates supervised by a manager.The larger the span, the less potential there is for coordination by direct supervision. As the span increases, the attention that a supervisor can devote to each subordinate decreases. Spans at the upper levels tend to be smaller. B. Flat versus Tall A flat organization refers to an organization with relatively few levels in its hierarchy of authority, while a tall organization refers to an organization with many levels in its hierarchy of authority. Thus, flatness versus tallness is an index of the vertical division of labour.Flatter structures tend to push decision-making powers downward and generally enhance vertical communication and coordination. C. Formalization Formalization refe rs to the extent to which work roles are highly defined by the organization. A very formalized organization tolerates little variability in the way members perform their tasks. Detailed, written job descriptions, thick procedure manuals, and the requirement to â€Å"put everything in writing† are evidence of formalization that stems from rules, regulations, and procedures.D. Centralization Centralization refers to the extent to which decision-making power is localized in a particular part of the organization. In the most centralized organization, the power for all key decisions would rest in a single individual, such as the president. In a more decentralized organization, decision- making power would be dispersed down through the hierarchy and across departments. E. Complexity Complexity refers to the extent to which organizations divide labour vertically, horizontally, and geographically.The essential characteristic of complexity is variety, and as an organization grows in c omplexity it has more kinds of people performing more kinds of tasks in more places, whether these places are departments or geographic territories. IV. Summarizing Structure Organic versus Mechanistic Mechanistic structures are organizational structures characterized by tallness, narrow spans, specialization, high centralization, and high formalization. Organic structures are organizational structures characterized by flatness, wider spans, fewer authority levels, less specialization, less formalization, and decentralization.In general, more mechanistic structures are called for when an organizations environment is more stable and its technology is more routine. Organic structures tend to work better when the environment is less stable and the technology is less routine. Many organizations, however, do not have only a single structure. Further, structure can and should change over time. When a large and established firm gets into a new line of business either on its own or by acqu iring a smaller and newer innovative firm, the innovative unit often requires some autonomy (i. e. differentiation) and a more organic structure than the established parent. As innovative units mature, they often tend to become more mechanistic and more integrated into the larger organization. V. Contemporary Organic Structures Recent years have seen the advent of new, more organic organizational structures. A. Network and Virtual Organizations In a network organization, various functions are coordinated as much by market mechanisms as by managers and formal lines of authority. Emphasis is placed on who can do what most effectively and economically rather than on fixed ties dictated by an organizational chart.All of the assets necessary to produce a finished product or service are present in the network as a whole, not held in-house by one firm. The most interesting networks are dynamic or virtual organizations. In a virtual organization an alliance of independent companies share sk ills, costs, and access to one another’s markets. It consists of a network of continually evolving independent companies. Each partner in a virtual organization contributes only in its area of core competencies. The key advantage of network and virtual organizations is their flexibility and adaptability.B. The Modular Organization A modular organization is an organization that performs a few core functions and outsources noncore activities to specialists and suppliers. Services that are often outsourced include the manufacture of parts, trucking, catering, data processing, and accounting. Thus, modular organizations are like hubs that are surrounded by networks of suppliers that can be added or removed as needed. By outsourcing noncore activities, modular organizations are able to keep unit costs low and develop new products more rapidly.They work best when they focus on the right specialty and have good suppliers. 62 C. The Boundaryless Organization In a boundaryless organiz ation, the boundaries that divide employees such as hierarchy, job function, and geography as well as those that distance companies from suppliers and customers are broken down. A boundaryless organization seeks to remove vertical, horizontal, and external barriers so that employees, managers, customers, and suppliers can work together, share ideas, and identify the best ideas for the organization.Instead of being organized around functions with many hierarchical levels, the boundaryless organization is made up of self-managing and cross- functional teams that are organized around core business processes that are critical for satisfying customers such as new-product development or materials handling. The traditional vertical hierarchy is flattened and replaced by layers of teams making the organization look more horizontal than vertical. Some believe that the boundaryless organization is the perfect organizational structure for the 21st century. VI.The Impact of Size Organizational size has a number of effects on the structure of organizations. A. Size and Structure In general, large organizations are more complex and less centralized than small organizations. Larger organizations have greater horizontal specialization and require more integrators and other coordination functions. Large organizations also rely more on formalization and often display greater vertical and geographic complexity. B. Downsizing A reduction in workforce size, popularly calleddownsizing, has been an organizational trend in recent years.Downsizing has a number of implications for organizational structure. Downsizing and Structure. Downsizing is the intentional reduction of workforce size with the goal of improving organizational efficiency or effectiveness. Downsizing usually results in a different organization, not just a smaller one. That is because there are different forces at work than those which drive growth. Also, white collar managerial and staff jobs have been hit hardest ch anging how organizations are structured. Downsizing is often accompanied by reducing horizontal and vertical complexity.Organizations become flatter and self-managed teams take over supervisory and quality control functions. Problems with Downsizing. There can be a downside to downsizing. Many organizations have not done a good job of anticipating and managing the structural and human consequences of downsizing. Organizations have a tendency to become mechanistic, particularly more formalized and centralized when threatened which works against needed flexibility in times of change. Firms may also be overzealous in their cutting and end up sub-contracting work to consultants which may be both inferior in quality and more expensive.Removing levels from the organization may be a good idea, provided that it doesnt overload the remaining staff and that everyone is comfortable with the greater levels of delegation required. Finally, the process of downsizing must be considered. Surprising people with workforce cuts is likely to result in low morale, reduced productivity, and continuing distrust of management. Research has shown that contrary to expectations, downsizing does not result in cost reductions in the long run or improvements in productivity. However, when carefully and properly implemented, downsizing can have positive consequences.VII. A Footnote: Symptoms of Structural Problems There are a number of symptoms of structural problems in organizations. Bad job design . There is a reciprocal relationship between job design and organizational structure. Frequently, improper structural arrangements turn good jobs into poor jobs in practice. The right hand doesnt know what the left is doing . If repeated examples of duplication of effort occur, or if parts of the organization work at cross- purposes, structure is suspect. Persistent conflict between departments . A failure of integration is often the source of conflicts.Slow response times . Delayed responses mi ght be due to improper structure. Decisions made with incomplete information . If decisions have been made with incomplete information, and the information existed somewhere in the organization, structure could be at fault. A proliferation of committees . When committee is piled on committee, or when task forces are being formed with great regularity, it is often a sign that the basic structure of the organization is being â€Å"patched up† because it does not work well. 63 Chapter 15: Environment, Strategy, and Technology Chapter SummaryQuestions and Exercises prepared by Alan Saks. I. The External Environment of Organizations The external environment consists of events and conditions surrounding an organization that influence its activities. The external environment has a tremendous influence on organizations and profoundly shapes organizational behavior. A. Organizations as Open Systems Organizations can be described as open systems. Open systems are systems that take inpu ts from the external environment, transform some of these inputs, and send them back into the external environment as outputs.This concept is important because it sensitizes us to the need for organizations to cope with demands of the environment on both the input and the output side. B. Components of the External Environment It is useful to divide the external environment into a manageable number of components. The General Economy. The general economy affects organizations as they profit from an upturn or suffer from a downturn. Customers. All organizations have potential customers for their products and services. Successful firms are highly sensitive to customer relations. Suppliers.Organizations are dependent on the environment for supplies that include labour, raw materials, equipment, and component parts. Shortages can cause severe difficulties. Competitors. Environmental competitors vie for resources that include both customers and suppliers. Successful organizations devote co nsiderable energy to monitoring the activities of competitors. Social/Political Factors. Organizations cannot ignore the social and political events that occur around them. Organizations must cope with a series of legal regulations that prescribe fair employment practices, proper competitive activities, product safety, and clients’ rights.Technology. The environment contains a variety of technologies that are useful for achieving organizational goals. The ability to adopt the proper technology should enhance an organization’s effectiveness. In addition to these basic components of organizational environments, there are a large number of interest groups that can exist in an organization’s environment. Interest groups are parties or organizations other than direct competitors that have some vested interest in how an organization is managed. Events in various components of the environment provide both onstraints and opportunities for organizations. C. Environmental Uncertainty Environmental uncertainty is a condition that exists when the environment is vague, difficult to diagnose, and unpredictable. Uncertainty depends on the environments complexity (simple versus complex) and its rate of change (static versus dynamic). Simple environment. A simple environment involves relatively few factors, and these factors are fairly similar to each other. Complex environment. A complex environment contains a large number of dissimilar factors that affect the organization.Static environment. The components of this environment remain fairly stable over time. Dynamic environment. The components of a highly dynamic environment are in a constant state of change, which is unpredictable and irregular, not cyclical. It is possible to arrange the rate of change and complexity in a matrix. A simple/static environment should provoke the least uncertainty, while a dynamic/complex environment should provoke the most. Some research suggests that change has more influ ence than complexity on uncertainty.Thus, we might expect a static/complex environment to be somewhat more certain than a dynamic/simple environment. Increasing uncertainty has several predictable effects on organizations including being less clear about cause-and-effect relationships, more difficulty agreeing on priorities, and more information must be processed by the organization to make adequate decisions. Organizations will act to cope with or reduce uncertainty because uncertainty increases the difficulty of decision making and thus threatens organizational effectiveness. D. Resource DependenceBecause organizations are open systems that receive inputs from the external environment and transfer outputs into this environment, they are in a state of resource dependence with regard to their environments. Resource dependence refers to the dependency of organizations on environmental inputs, such as capital, raw materials, and human resources. Carefully managing and coping with this resource dependence is a key to survival and success. Although all organizations are dependent on their environments for resources, some organizations are more dependent than others.As well, resource dependence can be fairly independent of environmental uncertainty, and dealing with one issue will not necessarily have an effect on the other. Organizations are not totally at the mercy of their environments. However, they must develop strategies for managing both resource dependence and environmental uncertainty. II. Strategic Responses to Uncertainty and Resource Dependence Organizations devote considerable effort to developing and implementing strategies to cope with environmental uncertainty and resource dependence.Strategy can be defined as the process by which top executives seek to cope with the constraints and opportunities posed by an organizations environment. It is the perceived environment that comprises the basis for strategy formulation. Strategy formulation involves det ermining the mission, goals, and objectives of the organization. The chosen strategy must correspond to the constraints and opportunities of the environment. A. Organizational Structure as a Strategic Response Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch studied how organizations should be structured to cope with environmental uncertainty.They found a close connection among environment, structure, and effectiveness. When there is a great range of uncertainty across the sub-environments faced by various organizational departments, the organization must be highly differentiated. Lawrence and Lorsch found that successful organizations facing a certain 64 environment were fairly undifferentiated and tended to adopt mechanistic structures. Effective organizations facing an uncertain environment were highly differentiated and tended to adopt organic structures.The argument that strategy determines structure is a reasonable conclusion when considering an organization undergoing great change or the formula tion of a new organization. However, for ongoing organizations, structure sometimes dictates strategy formulation. In general, organizations tailor structure to strategy in coping with the environment. However, structure sometimes dictates strategy formulation. B. Other Forms of Strategic Response Variations on organizational structure are not the only strategic response that organizations can make.Structural variations often accompany other responses that are oriented toward coping with environmental uncertainty or resource dependence. Some more elaborate forms of strategic responses concern relationships between organizations. Vertical integration. Vertical integration refers to the strategy of formally taking control of sources of organizational supply and distribution. Vertical integration can reduce risk for an organization in many cases but when the environment becomes very turbulent, it can reduce flexibility and actually increase risk.Managerial inefficiencies can also devel op as a result of control and coordination difficulties. Mergers and Acquisitions. Themerger or joining of two firms and theacquisition of one firm by another has become common strategic responses. Some mergers and acquisitions are stimulated by simple economies of scale. Other mergers and acquisitions are pursued for purposes of vertical integration. Strategic Alliances. Strategic alliances refer to actively cooperative relationships between legally separate organizations.The organizations in question retain their own cultures, but true cooperation replaces distrust, competition, or conflict for the project at hand. Properly designed, such alliances reduce risk and uncertainty for all parties, and resource interdependence is recognized. Organizations can engage in strategic alliances with competitors, suppliers, customers, and unions. Interlocking Directorates. Interlocking directorates refers to a condition that exists when one person serves on two or more boards of directors. The y provide a subtle but effective means of coping with environmental uncertainty and resource dependence.The director’s expertise and experience with one organization can provide valuable information for another. Interlocks can also serve as a means of influencing public opinion about the wealth, status, or social conscience of a particular organization. Establishing Legitimacy. One way for organizations to respond to the dilemma of making correct organizational responses when it is hard to know which response is correct is to do things that make the organization appear legitimate to various constituents. Establishing legitimacy involves taking actions that conform to prevailing norms and expectations.This will often be strategically correct, but equally important, it will have the appearance of being strategically correct. In turn, management will appear to be rational, and providers of resources will feel comfortable with the organization’s actions. Legitimacy can be achieved by conforming to established industry practices, bringing high profile people onto the board of directors, or making visible responses to social issues. The most common way of achieving legitimacy is to imitate management practices that other firms have institutionalized. III. The Technologies of OrganizationsTechnology can be defined as the activities, equipment, and knowledge necessary to turn organizational inputs into desired outputs. The concepts of technology and environment are closely related. Organizations choose their technologies. In general, this choice will be predicated on a desired strategy. Also, different parts of an organization rely on different technologies, just as they respond to different aspects of the environment as a whole. A. Basic Dimensions of Technology Three classification schemes of technology that can be applied to manufacturing firms and to service organizations are those of Charles Perrow, James D.Thompson, and Joanne Woodward. Perrow†™s Routineness. According to Perrow, the key factor that differentiates various technologies is the routineness of the transformation task that confronts the department or organization. Technological routineness refers to the extent to which exceptions and problems affect the task of converting inputs into outputs. It is a function of two factors: Exceptions. An organization that uses standardized inputs to produce standardized outputs confronts few exceptions compared with one that uses varied inputs and produces varied outputs. Technology is less routine as exceptions increase.Problems. When exceptions occur, are the problems easy to analyze or difficult to analyze? That is, can programmed decision-making occur, or must workers resort to nonprogrammed decision making? The technology becomes less routine as problems become more difficult to analyze. These dimensions can be arranged to produce a matrix of technologies. The matrix includes the following technologies: Craft technolo gies deal with fairly standard inputs and outputs. Routine technologies , such as assembly line operations and technical schools, also deal with standardized inputs and outputs.Nonroutine technologies must deal frequently with exceptional inputs or outputs, and the analysis of these exceptions is often difficult. Engineering technologies encounter many exceptions of input or required output, but these exceptions can be dealt with by using standardized responses. From most routine to least routine, Perrow’s four technological classifications can be ordered in the following manner: routine, engineering, craft, and nonroutine. Thompson’s Interdependence. In contrast to Perrow, James D.Thompson was interested in the way in which work activities are sequenced or â€Å"put together† during the transformation process. A key factor is technological interdependence which is the extent to which organizational subunits depend on each other for resources, such as raw materi als or information. In order of increasing interdependence, Thompson proposed three classifications of technology as follows: Mediating technologies operate under pooled interdependence. This means that each unit is to some extent dependent on the pooled resources generated by other units but is otherwise fairly independent of those units.Long-linked technologies operate under sequential interdependence. This means that each unit in the technology is dependent on the activity of the unit that preceded it in a sequence. The transformed product of each unit becomes a resource or raw material for the next unit. Intensive technologies operate under reciprocal interdependence. This means that considerable interplay and mutual feedback must occur between the units performing the task in order to accomplish it properly. This is necessary because each task is unique, and the intensive technology is thus a customized technology.As technologies become increasingly interdependent, problems of coordination, communication, and decision making increase. To perform effectively, each technology requires a tailored structure to facilitate these tasks.